What Did James Cook Find On His Explorer

British explorer (1728–1779)

James Cook FRS
Portrait by Sir Nathaniel Trip the light fantastic-Kingdom of the netherlands, c. 1775, National Maritime Museum
Built-in	7 Nov [O.Southward. 27 Oct] 1728 Marton, N Riding of Yorkshire, England
Died	14 February 1779(1779-02-xiv) (aged 50) Kealakekua Bay, Hawaiʻi
Cause of death	Stab wound
Nationality	British
Education	Postgate School, Bully Ayton
Occupation	Explorer, navigator, cartographer
Spouse(s)	Elizabeth Batts (m. )
Children	6

Military career
Co-operative	Royal Navy
Service years	1755–1779
Rank	Captain (Postal service-captain)
Battles/wars	Seven Years' War Boxing of the Plains of Abraham

Signature

James Cook FRS (vii November 1728^{[NB 1]} – fourteen Feb 1779) was a British explorer, navigator, cartographer, and helm in the British Purple Navy, famous for his three voyages betwixt 1768 and 1779 in the Pacific Ocean and to New Zealand and Commonwealth of australia in detail. He made detailed maps of Newfoundland prior to making three voyages to the Pacific, during which he achieved the get-go recorded European contact with the eastern coastline of Australia and the Hawaiian Islands, and the first recorded circumnavigation of New Zealand.

Cook joined the British merchant navy every bit a teenager and joined the Royal Navy in 1755. He saw activity in the Seven Years' War and afterward surveyed and mapped much of the entrance to the St. Lawrence River during the siege of Quebec, which brought him to the attending of the Admiralty and the Royal Society. This acclaim came at a crucial moment for the direction of British overseas exploration, and it led to his commission in 1766 as commander of HMS Endeavour for the first of 3 Pacific voyages.

In these voyages, Cook sailed thousands of miles across largely uncharted areas of the globe. He mapped lands from New Zealand to Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean in greater particular and on a scale not previously charted by Western explorers. He surveyed and named features, and recorded islands and coastlines on European maps for the first time. He displayed a combination of seamanship, superior surveying and cartographic skills, concrete courage, and an power to atomic number 82 men in adverse conditions.

Cook was attacked and killed in 1779 during his third exploratory voyage in the Pacific while attempting to kidnap the ruling chief of the island of Hawaiʻi, Kalaniʻōpuʻu, in order to reclaim a cutter taken from one of his ships later his crew took woods from a burial footing. He left a legacy of scientific and geographical cognition that influenced his successors well into the 20th century, and numerous memorials worldwide have been dedicated to him. Notwithstanding, there is controversy over Cook's role every bit an enabler of colonialism, and the violence associated with his contacts with ethnic peoples.

Early life and family

James Cook was built-in on vii Nov 1728 (NS) in the village of Marton in the North Riding of Yorkshire and baptised on fourteen November (North.Southward.) in the parish church of St Cuthbert, where his name can be seen in the church building register.^[1] ^[2] He was the second of eight children of James Cook (1693–1779), a Scottish farm labourer from Ednam in Roxburghshire, and his locally born wife, Grace Footstep (1702–1765), from Thornaby-on-Tees.^[1] ^[3] ^[4] In 1736, his family unit moved to Airey Holme subcontract at Smashing Ayton, where his father's employer, Thomas Skottowe, paid for him to attend the local school. In 1741, afterward five years' schooling, he began work for his begetter, who had been promoted to subcontract director. Despite not being formally educated he became capable in mathematics, astronomy and charting by the fourth dimension of his Endeavour voyage.^[five] For leisure, he would climb a nearby hill, Roseberry Topping, enjoying the opportunity for solitude.^[6] Cooks' Cottage, his parents' last home, which he is likely to have visited, is now in Melbourne, Australia, having been moved from England and reassembled, brick by brick, in 1934.^[7]

In 1745, when he was 16, Cook moved xx miles (32 km) to the fishing village of Staithes, to exist apprenticed every bit a shop boy to grocer and haberdasher William Sanderson.^[1] Historians have speculated that this is where Cook first felt the lure of the sea while gazing out of the shop window.^[4]

After eighteen months, non proving suited for shop work, Melt travelled to the nearby port town of Whitby to be introduced to Sanderson's friends John and Henry Walker.^[7] The Walkers, who were Quakers, were prominent local ship-owners in the coal trade. Their house is at present the Captain Cook Memorial Museum. Cook was taken on as a merchant navy apprentice in their small fleet of vessels, plying coal forth the English coast. His commencement assignment was aboard the collier Freelove, and he spent several years on this and various other coasters, sailing between the Tyne and London. As part of his apprenticeship, Cook practical himself to the study of algebra, geometry, trigonometry, navigation and astronomy—all skills he would demand one day to command his own ship.^[4]

His 3-twelvemonth apprenticeship completed, Cook began working on trading ships in the Baltic Sea. After passing his examinations in 1752, he soon progressed through the merchant navy ranks, starting with his promotion in that yr to mate aboard the collier brig Friendship.^[viii] In 1755, within a month of being offered command of this vessel, he volunteered for service in the Royal Navy, when Britain was re-arming for what was to become the Vii Years' War. Despite the need to offset back at the bottom of the naval hierarchy, Cook realised his career would advance more quickly in military service and entered the Navy at Wapping on 17 June 1755.^[ix]

Cook married Elizabeth Batts, the daughter of Samuel Batts, keeper of the Bell Inn in Wapping^[x] and one of his mentors, on 21 December 1762 at St Margaret's Church building, Barking, Essex.^[11] The couple had six children: James (1763–1794), Nathaniel (1764–1780, lost aboard HMSThunderer which foundered with all hands in a hurricane in the Due west Indies), Elizabeth (1767–1771), Joseph (1768–1768), George (1772–1772) and Hugh (1776–1793, who died of carmine fever while a student at Christ's College, Cambridge). When non at sea, Melt lived in the Eastward Finish of London. He attended St Paul's Church, Shadwell, where his son James was baptised. Melt has no direct descendants—all of his children died before having children of their own.^[12]

Commencement of Royal Navy career

Cook'southward first posting was with HMSHawkeye, serving as able seaman and main'south mate nether Helm Joseph Hamar for his first year aboard, and Captain Hugh Palliser thereafter.^[13] In October and November 1755, he took part in Eagle'due south capture of one French warship and the sinking of another, following which he was promoted to boatswain in improver to his other duties.^[nine] His outset temporary command was in March 1756 when he was briefly master of Cruizer, a small cutter attached to Eagle while on patrol.^[nine] ^[14]

In June 1757 Cook formally passed his principal'south examinations at Trinity House, Deptford, qualifying him to navigate and handle a ship of the Male monarch's armada.^[xv] He and so joined the frigate HMS Solebay as master under Captain Robert Craig.^[16]

Newfoundland

During the Vii Years' War, Cook served in North America as master aboard the fourth-rate Navy vessel HMSPembroke.^[17] With others in Pembroke 's coiffure, he took part in the major amphibious assault that captured the Fortress of Louisbourg from the French in 1758, and in the siege of Quebec City in 1759. Throughout his service he demonstrated a talent for surveying and cartography and was responsible for mapping much of the entrance to the Saint Lawrence River during the siege, thus allowing Full general Wolfe to make his famous stealth set on during the 1759 Battle of the Plains of Abraham.^[eighteen]

Cook's surveying power was likewise put to utilize in mapping the jagged declension of Newfoundland in the 1760s, aboard HMSGrenville. He surveyed the northwest stretch in 1763 and 1764, the due south coast between the Burin Peninsula and Cape Ray in 1765 and 1766, and the west coast in 1767. At this fourth dimension, Cook employed local pilots to point out the "rocks and hidden dangers" along the s and west coasts. During the 1765 season, four pilots were engaged at a daily pay of 4 shillings each: John Beck for the coast w of "Groovy St Lawrence", Morgan Snook for Fortune Bay, John Dawson for Connaigre and Hermitage Bay, and John Peck for the "Bay of Despair".^[nineteen]

While in Newfoundland, Cook also conducted astronomical observations, in particular of the eclipse of the lord's day on 5 Baronial 1766. By obtaining an authentic judge of the time of the offset and finish of the eclipse, and comparing these with the timings at a known position in England it was possible to summate the longitude of the observation site in Newfoundland. This result was communicated to the Royal Society in 1767.^[20]

His five seasons in Newfoundland produced the showtime large-scale and accurate maps of the island'due south coasts and were the outset scientific, big scale, hydrographic surveys to apply precise triangulation to establish land outlines.^[21] They likewise gave Cook his mastery of applied surveying, accomplished under oftentimes adverse conditions, and brought him to the attention of the Admiralty and Regal Society at a crucial moment both in his career and in the direction of British overseas discovery. Cook'south maps were used into the 20th century, with copies being referenced by those sailing Newfoundland'southward waters for 200 years.^[22]

Post-obit on from his exertions in Newfoundland, Cook wrote that he intended to get not simply "farther than whatsoever man has been earlier me, but as far as I think it is possible for a human being to go".^[15]

First voyage (1768–1771)

On 25 May 1768,^[23] the Admiralty commissioned Cook to command a scientific voyage to the Pacific Ocean. The purpose of the voyage was to observe and record the 1769 transit of Venus across the Dominicus which, when combined with observations from other places, would assist to make up one's mind the distance of the Earth from the Sunday.^[24] Cook, at historic period 39, was promoted to lieutenant to grant him sufficient status to accept the command.^[25] ^[26] For its function, the Royal Order agreed that Cook would receive a one hundred guinea gratuity in addition to his Naval pay.^[27]

The expedition sailed aboard HMSEndeavour, departing England on 26 August 1768.^[28] Cook and his crew rounded Cape Horn and continued westward across the Pacific, arriving at Tahiti on 13 April 1769, where the observations of the transit were made.^[29] However, the result of the observations was not every bit conclusive or authentic equally had been hoped. Once the observations were completed, Cook opened the sealed orders, which were boosted instructions from the Admiralty for the 2d part of his voyage: to search the southward Pacific for signs of the postulated rich southern continent of Terra Australis.^[xxx] Cook and then sailed to New Zealand where he mapped the complete coastline, making just some modest errors. With the aid of Tupaia, a Tahitian priest who had joined the trek, Cook was the first European to communicate with the Māori.^[31] He then voyaged west, reaching the southeastern coast of Australia well-nigh today's Betoken Hicks on 19 April 1770, and in doing then his expedition became the start recorded Europeans to have encountered its eastern coastline.^{[NB 2]}

On 23 April, he made his first recorded direct observation of ethnic Australians at Brush Island near Bawley Betoken, noting in his periodical: "... and were and then most the Shore equally to distinguish several people upon the Sea embankment they appear'd to exist of a very dark or blackness Color but whether this was the real color of their skins or the C[50]othes they might take on I know non."^[32] On 29 April, Cook and coiffure made their first landfall on the mainland of the continent at a identify now known every bit the Kurnell Peninsula. Cook originally named the area "Stingray Bay", but later he crossed this out and named it "Phytology Bay"^[33] after the unique specimens retrieved by the botanists Joseph Banks and Daniel Solander. Information technology is here that Cook made first contact with an aboriginal tribe known as the Gweagal.^[34]

Later on his departure from Botany Bay, he continued northwards. He stopped at Bustard Bay (now known as Seventeen 70) on 23 May 1770. On 24 May, Cook and Banks and others went ashore. Continuing north, on 11 June a mishap occurred when Endeavour ran ashore on a shoal of the Smashing Barrier Reef, and and so "nursed into a river mouth on 18 June 1770".^[35] The ship was desperately damaged, and his voyage was delayed almost seven weeks while repairs were carried out on the embankment (near the docks of modern Cooktown, Queensland, at the mouth of the Effort River).^[iv] The voyage then continued and at about midday on 22 Baronial 1770, they reached the northernmost tip of the coast and, without leaving the ship, Cook named information technology York Cape (at present Greatcoat York).^[36] Leaving the east coast, Cook turned w and nursed his dilapidated ship through the dangerously shallow waters of Torres Strait. Searching for a vantage indicate, Cook saw a steep hill on a nearby isle from the tiptop of which he hoped to see "a passage into the Indian Seas". Cook named the isle Possession Island, where he claimed the entire coastline that he had just explored as British territory.^[37] He returned to England via Batavia (modern Jakarta, Indonesia), where many in his crew succumbed to malaria, and so the Cape of Practiced Promise, arriving at the isle of Saint Helena on 30 April 1771.^[38] The ship finally returned to England on 12 July 1771, anchoring in The Downs, with Melt going to Deal.^[39]

Interlude

Cook'south journals were published upon his render, and he became something of a hero among the scientific customs. Amid the general public, however, the aristocratic botanist Joseph Banks was a greater hero.^[4] Banks even attempted to take control of Cook's 2nd voyage but removed himself from the voyage before it began, and Johann Reinhold Forster and his son Georg Forster were taken on as scientists for the voyage. Cook'southward son George was born five days before he left for his 2nd voyage.^[40]

2d voyage (1772–1775)

Portrait of James Cook by William Hodges, who accompanied Cook on his second voyage

Shortly after his return from the commencement voyage, Cook was promoted in August 1771 to the rank of commander.^[41] ^[42] In 1772, he was commissioned to lead another scientific expedition on behalf of the Royal Society, to search for the hypothetical Terra Australis. On his outset voyage, Melt had demonstrated by circumnavigating New Zealand that it was not fastened to a larger landmass to the southward. Although he charted almost the entire eastern coastline of Australia, showing information technology to exist continental in size, the Terra Australis was believed to prevarication farther southward. Despite this evidence to the contrary, Alexander Dalrymple and others of the Imperial Society still believed that a massive southern continent should exist.^[43]

Cook commanded HMSResolution on this voyage, while Tobias Furneaux commanded its companion ship, HMSAdventure. Melt'south expedition circumnavigated the earth at an extreme southern latitude, condign one of the beginning to cantankerous the Antarctic Circle on 17 January 1773. In the Antarctic fog, Resolution and Adventure became separated. Furneaux made his manner to New Zealand, where he lost some of his men during an see with Māori, and eventually sailed dorsum to Uk, while Cook continued to explore the Antarctic, reaching 71°10'Due south on 31 January 1774.^[15]

Analogy from the 1815 edition of Melt's Voyages, depicting Cook watching a human sacrifice in Tahiti c. 1773

Cook almost encountered the mainland of Antarctica just turned towards Tahiti to resupply his send. He and then resumed his southward course in a second fruitless attempt to find the supposed continent. On this leg of the voyage, he brought a young Tahitian named Omai, who proved to exist somewhat less knowledgeable most the Pacific than Tupaia had been on the start voyage. On his return voyage to New Zealand in 1774, Cook landed at the Friendly Islands, Easter Island, Norfolk Island, New Caledonia, and Vanuatu.

Before returning to England, Cook made a final sweep across the Due south Atlantic from Cape Horn and surveyed, mapped, and took possession for Great britain of Due south Georgia, which had been explored past the English language merchant Anthony de la Roché in 1675. Cook also discovered and named Clerke Rocks and the South Sandwich Islands ("Sandwich Land"). He then turned northward to Southward Africa and from there continued back to England. His reports upon his return home put to rest the popular myth of Terra Australis.^[44]

Cook'southward second voyage marked a successful employment of Larcum Kendall'due south K1 re-create of John Harrison'due south H4 marine chronometer, which enabled Melt to calculate his longitudinal position with much greater accuracy. Cook'southward log was full of praise for this time-piece which he used to make charts of the southern Pacific Bounding main that were then remarkably accurate that copies of them were even so in employ in the mid-20th century.^[45]

Upon his return, Melt was promoted to the rank of post-captain and given an honorary retirement from the Regal Navy, with a posting as an officeholder of the Greenwich Hospital. He reluctantly accepted, insisting that he be immune to quit the postal service if an opportunity for agile duty should arise.^[46] His fame extended beyond the Admiralty; he was made a Fellow of the Royal Society and awarded the Copley Aureate Medal for completing his second voyage without losing a man to scurvy.^[47] Nathaniel Dance-Holland painted his portrait; he dined with James Boswell; he was described in the Firm of Lords as "the first navigator in Europe".^[xv] Just he could not be kept away from the sea. A third voyage was planned, and Melt volunteered to find the Northwest Passage. He travelled to the Pacific and hoped to travel eastward to the Atlantic, while a simultaneous voyage travelled the opposite road.^[48]

Third voyage (1776–1779)

Hawaii

On his last voyage, Cook again commanded HMS Resolution, while Captain Charles Clerke commanded HMSDiscovery. The voyage was ostensibly planned to render the Pacific Islander Omai to Tahiti, or and then the public was led to believe. The trip's principal goal was to locate a Northwest Passage around the American continent.^[49] After dropping Omai at Tahiti, Melt travelled north and in 1778 became the beginning European to begin formal contact with the Hawaiian Islands.^[50] ^[51] After his initial landfall in January 1778 at Waimea harbour, Kauai, Melt named the archipelago the "Sandwich Islands" later on the fourth Earl of Sandwich—the acting First Lord of the Admiralty.^[51]

North America

From the Sandwich Islands, Cook sailed north and and then northeast to explore the w coast of N America north of the Castilian settlements in Alta California. He sighted the Oregon coast at approximately 44°30′ due north latitude, naming Cape Foulweather, after the bad weather which forced his ships southward to about 43° n before they could begin their exploration of the coast n.^[52] He unknowingly sailed past the Strait of Juan de Fuca and soon after entered Nootka Sound on Vancouver Island. He anchored about the First Nations village of Yuquot. Cook's ii ships remained in Nootka Sound from 29 March to 26 April 1778, in what Cook chosen Ship Cove, now Resolution Cove,^[53] at the south end of Bligh Island. Relations between Cook'south coiffure and the people of Yuquot were cordial but sometimes strained. In trading, the people of Yuquot demanded much more valuable items than the usual trinkets that had been adequate in Hawaii. Metal objects were much desired, just the lead, pewter, and tin traded at starting time soon barbarous into disrepute. The most valuable items which the British received in merchandise were sea otter pelts. During the stay, the Yuquot "hosts" essentially controlled the trade with the British vessels; the natives usually visited the British vessels at Resolution Cove instead of the British visiting the village of Yuquot at Friendly Cove.^[54]

Subsequently leaving Nootka Audio in search of the Northwest Passage, Cook explored and mapped the coast all the way to the Bering Strait, on the way identifying what came to be known as Cook Inlet in Alaska.^[52] In a single visit, Cook charted the bulk of the N American northwest coastline on world maps for the kickoff time, determined the extent of Alaska, and airtight the gaps in Russian (from the west) and Spanish (from the south) exploratory probes of the northern limits of the Pacific.^[15]

HMS Resolution and Discovery in Tahiti

Past the 2d week of August 1778, Melt was through the Bering Strait, sailing into the Chukchi Sea. He headed northeast up the coast of Alaska until he was blocked by bounding main ice at a latitude of seventy°44′ northward. Cook then sailed west to the Siberian coast, and then southeast down the Siberian coast back to the Bering Strait. By early September 1778 he was dorsum in the Bering Sea to brainstorm the trip to the Sandwich (Hawaiian) Islands.^[55] He became increasingly frustrated on this voyage and possibly began to endure from a stomach ailment; it has been speculated that this led to irrational behaviour towards his coiffure, such every bit forcing them to eat walrus meat, which they had pronounced inedible.^[56]

Render to Hawaii

Melt returned to Hawaii in 1779. Afterward sailing around the archipelago for some eight weeks, he made landfall at Kealakekua Bay on Hawai'i Island, largest island in the Hawaiian Archipelago. Cook's arrival coincided with the Makahiki, a Hawaiian harvest festival of worship for the Polynesian god Lono. Coincidentally the form of Melt'southward transport, HMS Resolution, or more than particularly the mast germination, sails and rigging, resembled certain pregnant artefacts that formed role of the season of worship.^[4] ^[56] Similarly, Melt's clockwise route effectually the island of Hawaii before making landfall resembled the processions that took place in a clockwise management effectually the island during the Lono festivals. It has been argued (nearly extensively by Marshall Sahlins) that such coincidences were the reasons for Cook's (and to a limited extent, his coiffure'south) initial deification by some Hawaiians who treated Cook every bit an incarnation of Lono.^[57] Though this view was first suggested by members of Cook's trek, the idea that whatever Hawaiians understood Cook to be Lono, and the prove presented in support of it, were challenged in 1992.^[56] ^[58]

Decease

Marker at the shoreline of Kealakekua Bay nigh the spot Captain Cook was slain

After a month'south stay, Cook attempted to resume his exploration of the northern Pacific. Before long after leaving Hawaii Isle, however, Resolution 's foremast broke, so the ships returned to Kealakekua Bay for repairs.

Tensions rose, and a number of quarrels broke out between the Europeans and Hawaiians at Kealakekua Bay, including the theft of forest from a burial footing under Cook'due south orders.^[59] An unknown group of Hawaiians took one of Melt's pocket-size boats. The evening when the cutter was taken, the people had become "insolent" even with threats to fire upon them.^[60] Melt attempted to kidnap and ransom the King of Hawaiʻi, Kalaniʻōpuʻu.

The following day, 14 February 1779, Cook marched through the hamlet to retrieve the male monarch. Cook took the king (aliʻi nui) by his own mitt and led him away. One of Kalaniʻōpuʻu's favourite wives, Kanekapolei, and ii chiefs approached the grouping as they were heading to the boats. They pleaded with the king not to become. An old kahuna (priest), chanting rapidly while holding out a kokosnoot, attempted to distract Cook and his men as a large crowd began to grade at the shore. At this point, the king began to empathize that Cook was his enemy.^[60] As Cook turned his dorsum to help launch the boats, he was struck on the head by the villagers and then stabbed to death as he fell on his face in the surf.^[61] He was first struck on the head with a club past a chief named Kalaimanokahoʻowaha or Kanaʻina (namesake of Charles Kana'ina) and so stabbed by one of the male monarch's attendants, Nuaa.^[62] ^[63] The Hawaiians carried his body away towards the back of the boondocks, yet visible to the ship through their spyglass. Four marines, Corporal James Thomas, Private Theophilus Hinks, Private Thomas Fatchett and Private John Allen, were also killed and ii others were wounded in the confrontation.^[62] ^[64]

The routes of Captain James Melt's voyages. The first voyage is shown in carmine , 2d voyage in green , and third voyage in blue . The road of Melt'south crew following his death is shown as a dashed bluish line.

Backwash

The esteem which the islanders nevertheless held for Cook acquired them to retain his torso. Following their practise of the time, they prepared his body with funerary rituals usually reserved for the chiefs and highest elders of the society. The body was disembowelled and baked to facilitate removal of the mankind, and the bones were carefully cleaned for preservation as religious icons in a fashion somewhat reminiscent of the treatment of European saints in the Middle Ages. Some of Melt's remains, thus preserved, were eventually returned to his crew for a formal burying at sea.^[65]

Clerke assumed leadership of the expedition and made a terminal attempt to laissez passer through the Bering Strait.^[66] He died of tuberculosis on 22 August 1779 and John Gore, a veteran of Melt'southward first voyage, took control of Resolution and of the expedition. James King replaced Gore in control of Discovery.^[67] The expedition returned home, reaching England in October 1780. After their inflow in England, King completed Melt'south account of the voyage.^[68]

Legacy

Ethnographic collections

The Australian Museum acquired its "Cook Collection" in 1894 from the Regime of New South Wales. At that time the drove consisted of 115 artefacts collected on Cook's three voyages throughout the Pacific Ocean, during the period 1768–80, along with documents and memorabilia related to these voyages. Many of the ethnographic artefacts were collected at a fourth dimension of first contact betwixt Pacific Peoples and Europeans. In 1935 virtually of the documents and memorabilia were transferred to the Mitchell Library in the State Library of New South Wales. The provenance of the collection shows that the objects remained in the hands of Cook's widow Elizabeth Cook, and her descendants, until 1886. In this year John Mackrell, the slap-up-nephew of Isaac Smith, Elizabeth Cook's cousin, organised the display of this collection at the asking of the NSW Government at the Colonial and Indian Exhibition in London. In 1887 the London-based Agent-Full general for the New South Wales Regime, Saul Samuel, bought John Mackrell's items and likewise caused items belonging to the other relatives Reverend Canon Frederick Bennett, Mrs Thomas Langton, H.G.C. Alexander, and William Adams. The collection remained with the Colonial Secretary of NSW until 1894, when information technology was transferred to the Australian Museum.^[69]

Navigation and scientific discipline

A 1775 nautical chart of Newfoundland, made from James Melt'southward Seven Years' War surveyings

Cook's 12 years sailing effectually the Pacific Sea contributed much to Europeans' knowledge of the area. Several islands, such as the Hawaiian group, were encountered for the get-go time by Europeans, and his more accurate navigational charting of large areas of the Pacific was a major achievement.^[70] To create accurate maps, latitude and longitude must be accurately adamant. Navigators had been able to work out latitude accurately for centuries by measuring the bending of the sunday or a star above the horizon with an instrument such as a backstaff or quadrant. Longitude was more hard to mensurate accurately considering it requires precise knowledge of the fourth dimension departure between points on the surface of the earth. The Earth turns a full 360 degrees relative to the lord's day each day. Thus longitude corresponds to time: 15 degrees every hour, or ane caste every 4 minutes.^[71] Cook gathered authentic longitude measurements during his first voyage from his navigational skills, with the help of astronomer Charles Dark-green, and by using the newly published Nautical Almanac tables, via the lunar distance method – measuring the athwart distance from the moon to either the sun during daytime or one of eight bright stars during night-fourth dimension to make up one's mind the fourth dimension at the Majestic Observatory, Greenwich, and comparing that to his local fourth dimension adamant via the altitude of the sun, moon, or stars.

On his second voyage, Cook used the K1 chronometer fabricated by Larcum Kendall, which was the shape of a large pocket scout, 5 inches (13 cm) in diameter. It was a copy of the H4 clock made past John Harrison, which proved to exist the first to keep accurate time at body of water when used on the ship Deptford 'southward journeying to Jamaica in 1761–62.^[72] He succeeded in circumnavigating the earth on his first voyage without losing a single man to scurvy, an unusual accomplishment at the time. He tested several preventive measures, most chiefly the frequent replenishment of fresh food.^[73] For presenting a paper on this aspect of the voyage to the Regal Society he was presented with the Copley Medal in 1776.^[74] ^[75] Cook became the first European to have extensive contact with various people of the Pacific. He correctly postulated a link among all the Pacific peoples, despite their existence separated by great ocean stretches (see Malayo-Polynesian languages). Cook theorised that Polynesians originated from Asia, which scientist Bryan Sykes afterward verified.^[76] In New Zealand the coming of Melt is often used to signify the onset of the colonisation^[4] ^[7] which officially started more than 70 years afterwards his coiffure became the 2nd group of Europeans to visit that archipelago.

Cook carried several scientists on his voyages; they fabricated significant observations and discoveries. Two botanists, Joseph Banks and the Swede Daniel Solander, sailed on the first voyage. The ii collected over 3,000 plant species.^[77] Banks after strongly promoted British settlement of Australia,^[78] ^[79] leading to the institution of New South Wales every bit a penal settlement in 1788. Artists besides sailed on Cook's get-go voyage. Sydney Parkinson was heavily involved in documenting the botanists' findings, completing 264 drawings earlier his decease near the end of the voyage. They were of immense scientific value to British botanists.^[4] ^[80] Cook'due south second expedition included William Hodges, who produced notable mural paintings of Tahiti, Easter Island, and other locations. Several officers who served under Cook went on to distinctive accomplishments. William Bligh, Cook's sailing master, was given command of HMSBounty in 1787 to sail to Tahiti and render with breadfruit. Bligh became known for the mutiny of his crew, which resulted in his existence set adrift in 1789. He later became Governor of New South Wales, where he was the subject of another mutiny—the 1808 Rum Rebellion.^[81] George Vancouver, ane of Melt's midshipmen, led a voyage of exploration to the Pacific Coast of North America from 1791 to 1794.^[82] In accolade of Vancouver's former commander, his ship was named Discovery. George Dixon, who sailed nether Cook on his third trek, later commanded his own.^[83] Henry Roberts, a lieutenant under Cook, spent many years later on that voyage preparing the detailed charts that went into Cook'south posthumous atlas, published around 1784.

Melt's contributions to knowledge gained international recognition during his lifetime. In 1779, while the American colonies were fighting Britain for their independence, Benjamin Franklin wrote to captains of colonial warships at bounding main, recommending that if they came into contact with Melt'due south vessel, they were to "not consider her an enemy, nor suffer any plunder to be fabricated of the furnishings contained in her, nor obstruct her firsthand return to England by detaining her or sending her into any other part of Europe or to America; just that you treat the said Captain Cook and his people with all civility and kindness ... equally common friends to mankind."^[84]

Memorials

A U.S. money, the 1928 Hawaii Sesquicentennial half-dollar, carries Cook's image. Minted for the 150th anniversary of his discovery of the islands, its low mintage (10,008) has made this example of an early on Usa commemorative coin both deficient and expensive.^[85] The site where he was killed in Hawaii was marked in 1874 past a white obelisk set on 25 square feet (2.3 m²) of chained-off beach. This land, although in Hawaii, was deeded to the United Kingdom past Princess Likelike and her husband, Archibald Scott Cleghorn, to the British Consul to Hawaii, James Hay Wodehouse, in 1877.^[86] ^[87] ^{[ failed verification ]} A nearby town is named Captain Cook, Hawaii; several Hawaiian businesses as well carry his proper noun. The Apollo 15 Command/Service Module Effort was named afterwards Cook's send, HMSEndeavour,^[88] as was the Space ShuttleEndeavour.^[89] In addition, the starting time Crew Dragon capsule flown by SpaceX was named for Endeavour. ^[90] Some other shuttle, Discovery, was named after Melt's HMSDiscovery.^[91]

The first institution of higher education in North Queensland, Commonwealth of australia, was named afterward him, with James Cook University opening in Townsville in 1970.^[92] Numerous institutions, landmarks and place names reflect the importance of Melt's contributions, including the Cook Islands, Melt Strait, Melt Inlet and the Melt crater on the Moon.^[93] Aoraki / Mount Cook, the highest summit in New Zealand, is named for him.^[94] Another Mount Melt is on the border between the U.Southward. country of Alaska and the Canadian Yukon territory, and is designated Boundary Peak 182 as one of the official Purlieus Peaks of the Hay–Herbert Treaty.^[95] A life-size statue of Cook upon a column stands in Hyde Park located in the centre of Sydney. A large aquatic monument is planned for Cook'south landing identify at Botany Bay, Sydney.^[96]

Ane of the earliest monuments to Cook in the Britain is located at The Vache, erected in 1780 by Admiral Hugh Palliser, a contemporary of Cook and 1-time owner of the estate.^[97] A large obelisk was built in 1827 equally a monument to Cook on Easby Moor overlooking his adolescence village of Dandy Ayton,^[98] along with a smaller monument at the former location of Melt'due south cottage.^[99] In that location is also a monument to Melt in the church building of St Andrew the Great, St Andrew's Street, Cambridge, where his sons Hugh, a student at Christ's College, and James were buried. Cook'due south widow Elizabeth was also buried in the church and in her will left money for the memorial's upkeep. The 250th ceremony of Cook's nascency was marked at the site of his birthplace in Marton by the opening of the Captain Cook Birthplace Museum, located within Stewart Park (1978). A granite vase only to the s of the museum marks the judge spot where he was born.^[100] Tributes also abound in post-industrial Middlesbrough, including a primary school,^[101] shopping foursquare^[102] and the Canteen 'O Notes, a public artwork by Claes Oldenburg, that was erected in the boondocks'south Central Gardens in 1993. Likewise named after Cook is James Cook University Hospital, a major teaching hospital which opened in 2003 with a railway station serving it called James Cook opening in 2022.^[103] The Regal Research Ship RRS James Melt was built in 2006 to replace the RRS Charles Darwin in the Great britain'due south Imperial Research Fleet,^[104] and Stepney Historical Trust placed a plaque on Gratis Trade Wharf in the Highway, Shadwell to commemorate his life in the Due east Finish of London. A statue erected in his honour can be viewed near Admiralty Curvation on the south side of The Mall in London. In 2002, Cook was placed at number 12 in the BBC'due south poll of the 100 Greatest Britons.^[105]

In 1959, the Cooktown Re-enactment Association first performed a re-enactment of Cook'due south 1770 landing at the site of modern Cooktown, Australia, and accept continued the tradition each twelvemonth, with the support and participation of many of the local Guugu Yimithirr people.^[106]

Cultural references

Cook was a subject in many literary creations; one of the earliest was "Captain Cook" by Letitia Elizabeth Landon (50.E.L.). In 1931, Kenneth Slessor's poem "5 Visions of Captain Cook" was the "most dramatic suspension-through" in Australian verse of the 20th century according to poet Douglas Stewart.^[107]

The Australian slang phrase "Have a Helm Melt" means to have a wait or comport a cursory inspection.^[108]

Controversy

Statue of James Cook, Hyde Park, Sydney. The rear inscription reads: "Discovered this territory, 1770".

The menstruum 2022 to 2022 marked the 250th anniversary of Cook'south offset voyage of exploration. A number of countries, including Australia and New Zealand, bundled official events to commemorate the voyage^[109] ^[110] leading to widespread public fence almost Melt's legacy.^[111] ^[112] In the leadup to the commemorations, various memorials to Cook in Australia and New Zealand were vandalised and there were public calls for their removal or modification due to their alleged promotion of colonialist narratives.^[113] ^[114] On 1 July 2022, a statue of James Melt in Victoria, British Columbia, Canada, was torn downward following an earlier peaceful protest near the deaths of Indigenous residential school children in Canada.^[115] In that location were also campaigns for the return of Indigenous artefacts taken during Melt'southward voyages (see Gweagal shield).^[116] Alice Proctor argues that the controversies over public representations of Cook and the brandish of Indigenous artefacts from his voyages are part of a broader debate over the decolonisation of museums and public spaces and resistance to colonialist narratives.^[117] While a number of commentators contend that Cook was an enabler of British colonialism in the Pacific,^[111] ^[118] Geoffrey Blainey, amid others, notes that it was Banks who promoted Botany Bay as a site for colonisation subsequently Cook'southward expiry.^[119] Robert Tombs defended Cook, associating him with the values of the Enlightenment and positing him as "The leading effigy in an historic period of scientific exploration".^[120]

References

Notes

^ Old Style date: 27 October
^ At this time, the International Date Line had yet to exist established, so the dates in Melt'south journal are a mean solar day before than those accepted today.

Citations

^ ^a ^b ^c Rigby & van der Merwe 2002, p. 25
^ Robson 2009, p. 2
^ Postage stamp 1978, p. one
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Collingridge 2003
^ Frost, Alan (nineteen October 2022). Wildcat, Mayhem, Mythology: Bounty's Enigmatic Voyage. Sydney University Press. p. 255. ISBN978-1-74332-587-2. Archived from the original on 3 August 2022. Retrieved four December 2022.
^ Collingridge 2003, p. 15
^ ^a ^b ^c Horwitz 2003
^ Hough 1994, p. 11
^ ^a ^b ^c Rigby & van der Merwe 2002, p. 27
^ "Famous 18th century people in Barking and Dagenham: James Cook and Dick Turpin" (PDF). London Borough of Barking and Dagenham. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 June 2022. Retrieved 5 March 2022.
^ Robson 2009, pp. 120–21
^ Postage stamp 1978, p. 138
^ Robson 2009, pp. xix–25
^ McLynn 2022, p. 21
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Williams, Glyn (17 Feb 2022). "Helm Melt: Explorer, Navigator and Pioneer". BBC. Archived from the original on xix August 2022. Retrieved 5 September 2022.
^ Capper, Paul (1985–1996). "The Helm Cook Society: Cook's Log". Life in the Royal Navy (1755–1767). Archived from the original on 21 July 2022. Retrieved 22 September 2022.
^ Kemp & Dear 2005
^ Hough 1994, p. nineteen
^ Whiteley, William (1975). "James Cook in Newfoundland 1762–1767" (PDF). Newfoundland Historical Lodge Pamphlet Number 3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 May 2022. Retrieved 27 August 2022.
^ Melt, James; Bevis, J. (1 January 1767). "An Observation of an Eclipse of the Sun at the Island of New-Establish-Land, Baronial v, 1766, by Mr. James Cook, with the Longitude of the Identify of Observation Deduced from It". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 57: 215–216. doi:10.1098/rstl.1767.0025.
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^ Hough 1994, p. 32
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^ Collingridge 2003, p. 95
^ Rigby & van der Merwe 2002, p. 30
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Bibliography

Beaglehole, J. C., ed. (1968). The Journals of Captain James Cook on His Voyages of Discovery. Vol. I: The Voyage of the Effort 1768–1771. Cambridge Academy Press. OCLC 223185477.
Beaglehole, John Cawte (1974). The Life of Captain James Melt. A & C Blackness. ISBN978-0-7136-1382-7.
Collingridge, Vanessa (2003). Captain Melt: The Life, Death and Legacy of History'southward Greatest Explorer. Ebury Printing. ISBN978-0-09-188898-five.
Fernandez-Armesto, Felipe (2006). Pathfinders: A Global History of Exploration. Westward. W. Norton & Visitor. ISBN978-0-393-06259-five.
Fisher, Robin (1979). Helm James Cook and his times. Taylor & Francis. ISBN978-0-7099-0050-4.
Hayes, Derek (1999). Historical Atlas of the Pacific Northwest: Maps of exploration and Discovery. Sasquatch Books. ISBN978-one-57061-215-ii.
Horwitz, Tony (October 2003). Blue Latitudes: Boldly Going Where Captain Cook Has Gone Before. Bloomsbury. ISBN978-0-7475-6455-3.
Hough, Richard (1994). Captain James Cook. Hodder and Stoughton. ISBN978-0-340-82556-iii.
Kemp, Peter; Dearest, I. C. B. (2005). The Oxford Companion to Ships and the Sea. OUP. ISBN978-0-19-860616-1.
Kippis, Andrew (1788). Narrative of the voyages circular the globe, performed by Captain James Cook; with an account of his life during the previous and intervening periods. Archived from the original on 26 April 2022. Retrieved 16 July 2022.
McLynn, Frank (2011). Captain Melt: Master of the Seas. Yale University Press. ISBN978-0-300-11421-8.
Moorehead, Alan (1966). Fatal Impact: An Account of the Invasion of the Due south Pacific, 1767–1840 . H Hamilton. ISBN978-0-241-90757-3.
Mundle, Rob (2013). Cook: from Sailor to Legend. ABC Books. ISBN978-1-46070-061-7.
Obeyesekere, Gananath (1992). The Apotheosis of Captain Cook: European Mythmaking in the Pacific. Princeton University Press. ISBN9780691056807.
Obeyesekere, Gananath (1997). The Apotheosis of Captain Cook: European Mythmaking in the Pacific (PDF). Princeton University Printing. ISBN978-0-691-05752-ane. With new preface and afterword replying to criticism from Sahlins
Rigby, Nigel; van der Merwe, Pieter (2002). Captain Cook in the Pacific. National Maritime Museum, London. ISBN978-0-948065-43-9.
Robson, John (2004). The Captain Melt Encyclopædia. Random House Australia. ISBN978-0-7593-1011-seven.
Robson, John (2009). Captain Cook's War and Peace: The Purple Navy Years 1755–1768. University of New South Wales Press. ISBN978-ane-74223-109-9.
Sahlins, Marshall David (1985). Islands of history . Academy of Chicago Press. ISBN978-0-226-73358-6.
Sahlins, Marshall David (1995). How "Natives" Think: About Helm Melt, for example. Academy of Chicago Press. ISBN978-0-226-73368-5.
Sidney, John Baker (1981). The Australian Language: An Exam of the English language Language and English Speech as Used in Australia, from Convict Days to the Present. Melbourne: Dominicus Books. ISBN978-0-7251-0382-8.
Stamp, Tom and Cordelia (1978). James Cook Maritime Scientist. Whitby: Caedmon of Whitby Press. ISBN978-0-905355-04-7.
Sykes, Bryan (2001). The Seven Daughters of Eve. Norton Publishing: New York City and London. ISBN978-0-393-02018-two.
Wagner, A. R. (1972). Celebrated Heraldry of Britain . London: Phillimore & Co Ltd. ISBN978-0-85033-022-ix.
Wharton, W. J. L. (1893). Helm Cook's Periodical during his first voyage circular the world made in H.M. Bawl "Effort" 1768–71. Archived from the original on 22 March 2022. Retrieved 16 July 2022.

External links

Wikimedia Eatables has media related to James Cook.

Captain Cook Society
Captain Melt historic plaque, Halifax
"Explorer, navigator, coloniser: revisit Captain Cook's legacy with the click of a mouse". The Chat. 29 Apr 2022. Retrieved 29 April 2022.
"Articles on Helm Cook". The Conversation. 2022–2020. Retrieved 23 December 2022.

Biographical dictionaries

"Cook, James (1728–1779)". Australian Dictionary of Biography (online ed.). National Centre of Biography, Australian National University. 1966. Retrieved 8 January 2022.
Williams, Glyndwr (1979). "Melt, James". In Halpenny, Francess G (ed.). Dictionary of Canadian Biography. Vol. Four (1771–1800) (online ed.). University of Toronto Press.
Mackay, David. "Melt, James". Dictionary of New Zealand Biography. Ministry for Civilisation and Heritage.

Journals

The Try journal (ane) and The Endeavour journal (2), as kept by James Cook – digitised and held by the National Library of Australia
The South Seas Project: maps and online editions of the Journals of James Cook'south First Pacific Voyage, 1768–1771. Includes full text of journals kept by Cook, Joseph Banks and Sydney Parkinson, likewise as the complete text of John Hawkesworth'south 1773 Account of Cook'south first voyage.
Digitised copies of log books from James Cook's voyages at the British Atmospheric Data Center
Works by James Cook at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about James Cook at Internet Annal
Works by James Melt at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
Log book of Melt'south 2nd voyage: loftier-resolution digitised version in Cambridge Digital Library
Digitised Tapa cloth catalogue held at Auckland Libraries

Collections and museums

The Library of the Regal Geographical Society of Southward Australia specialises in collecting works on Helm James Cook, his voyages and HMS Endeavour
Cook's Pacific Encounters: Cook-Forster Drove online Images and descriptions of more than 300 artefacts collected during the three Pacific voyages of James Melt.
Images and descriptions of items associated with James Melt at the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa
"Archival textile relating to James Cook". Uk National Archives.
Captain Melt Birthplace Museum Marton
Captain Cook Memorial Museum Whitby
Cook's manuscript maps of the s-east coast of Australia, held at the American Geographical Social club Library at UW Milwaukee.
Newspaper clippings about James Cook in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW